Important topics and their relevance in UPSC CSE exam

Important topics and their relevance in UPSC CSE exam for November 4, 2026. If you missed the November 3, 2026 UPSC CSE exam key from the Indian Express, read it here Front Page Poll panel fixes Form 6, deletes ‘illegal’ SIR para Syllabus: Preliminary Examination: Indian Polity and Governance Mains Examination: General Studies II: Salient features of the Representation of People’s Act. What’s the ongoing story : IN THE latest of a series of U-turns that have effectively undone almost every decision the two Election Commissioners, Sukhbir Singh Sandhu and Vivek Joshi, had objected to in 14 notes over 10 months , the Election Commission of India (ECI) has now taken the Special Intensive Revision (SIR) declaration out of the online version of the statutory voter enrolment form, Form 6, on its ECINet portal in the states where the SIR is still under way. Key Points to Ponder: • What is Form 6? • What does Article 326 of the Constitution provide? • What is the Special Intensive Revision (SIR) of electoral rolls? • How Special Intensive Revision (SIR) is different from ordinary revision of electoral rolls? • Why is collective decision-making important in a multi-member Election Commission? • Establish the relationship between the Representation of the People Act, 1950, the Registration of Electors Rules, 1960, and the Election Commission’s powers over electoral rolls. Key Takeaways: • What this means is that the declaration inserted between Sections J and K of the online enrolment application for new voters is no longer part of Form 6. This declaration asked applicants to choose one of three statements: whether their name appeared in the electoral roll during the last SIR held in the early 2000s, whether the name of a parent or grandparent appeared in that roll, or whether neither their name nor that of their parents appeared in it. An applicant could not proceed without answering it. • Joshi had written on May 16 that no such change could be made without a legal amendment to the form. Sandhu, on August 13, called it “unauthorised/illegal”. This declaration is now available on the portal as a separate form. • The development comes after the Commission told the Supreme Court, in its counter-affidavit filed on October 26, that its ER (Electoral Roll) Division had decided on October 21 to split the two. The affidavit says the SIR-related declaration had been placed inside Form 6 so that an applicant would generate a single OTP and a single e-signature rather than two, and that this “bonafide objective became a subject matter of deliberation and suggestions”. It goes on to state, “It has been decided vide decision dt. 21.10.2026 of the ER Division that as in the case of submitting the Application in Form 6 in a physical format, the online Application shall also be in two parts i.e. Form 6 as prescribed in the Rules and the SIR Declaration.” Do You Know: • On September 23, The Indian Express reported that Sandhu and Joshi had objected to the change, on the ground that Form 6 is prescribed under the Registration of Electors Rules, 1960, and that only the Central Government can amend it. Joshi put that on record on May 16. Sandhu concurred on May 19. The question appeared on the online form anyway in July, as this newspaper first reported on July 12. On August 13, Sandhu called it “unauthorised/illegal” and said it must be removed immediately. It was still there when the investigation was published. • The Commission’s first answer, in a press note issued the same day, did not mention Form 6 at all. It said “all actions of ECI have been in accordance of laws and instructions of the Commission”, described the Commissioners’ notes as “operational queries or inputs raised by Commission members during draft stages”, and said every decision of the past year was “an outcome of the unanimous decisions of the full Commission”. • The Commission’s own explanation for putting the declaration inside Form 6 is that it saved the applicant an OTP. Two separate documents would have required two one-time passwords and two e-signatures. One page produced one of each. Other Important Articles Covering the same topic: 📍 Biometrics, voter IDs for beneficiary payments, not Aadhaar: Minister Previous year UPSC Mains Question Covering similar theme: 📍Is the right to vote a fundamental right? Discuss the position of the Election Commission of India while undertaking the revision of electoral rolls. Can it also examine the question of citizenship of voters? (UPSC, GS2, 2026) On Govt agenda: New Rs 2,800-cr capex scheme for critical minerals Syllabus: Preliminary Examination: Current events of national and international importance. Mains Examination: General Studies III: Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways etc. What’s the ongoing story : A new scheme with a proposed outlay of about Rs 2,800 crore to provide capital expenditure (capex) support for the processing of critical minerals such as lithium and nickel ores is likely to be taken up by the Union Cabinet on Wednesday, The Indian Express has learnt. Key Points to Ponder: • What are critical minerals? • Compare and contrast critical minerals and rare earth minerals. • What are the criteria used to determine the criticality of a mineral for an economy? • Why are lithium and nickel considered important for India’s energy transition and industrial development? • Know the role of critical minerals in the manufacturing of electric vehicles, batteries and renewable-energy systems. • How critical minerals, strategic minerals and conventional minerals are different from each other? • What factors make a mineral supply chain vulnerable? • What is the role of critical minerals in the emerging global strategic landscape? • Why critical minerals are significant for India’s economic and strategic security? Key Takeaways: • According to sources aware of the development, the scheme, aimed at developing domestic critical mineral processing base, is likely to be focused on processing of lithium and nickel ores and intermediary products into high-purity compounds. Cobalt is expected to be recovered as a by-product of nickel production, the sources said. • Lithium, nickel and cobalt are important components for Li-ion batteries that power everything from smartphones to electric vehicles. • Sources said the scheme is likely to provide a capital subsidy of 30 per cent of eligible investment for setting up four processing plants — two lithium processing plants with a minimum capacity of 30 kilotonnes (kt) each and two nickel processing plants with a minimum capacity of 50 kt each. The maximum capital support could be capped at Rs 500 crore per lithium beneficiary and Rs 900 crore per nickel beneficiary. • The proposed scheme is expected to support sectors such as electric mobility, battery energy storage systems (BESS), electronics, defence and speciality steel, while strengthening India’s domestic critical mineral value chain. • Discussions regarding a scheme to promote the processing of lithium and nickel have been going on for some time. In September, Keshav Chandra, Secretary, Ministry of Mines, had said the government was planning to launch a scheme for critical minerals considered important to the battery manufacturing ecosystem. However, he did not reveal any further details. • The government has already identified four states — Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, Gujarat and Maharashtra — for setting up critical mineral processing parks. Chandra had said the government was planning to develop each park as a complete ecosystem for a particular mineral. Accordingly, Gujarat and Andhra Pradesh are looking at rare earth processing, while Odisha and Maharashtra are set to focus on nickel and lithium, respectively. • Gujarat was identified for rare earth processing given the availability of heavy rare earth elements in the state and its existing beneficiation and processing capabilities. Andhra Pradesh was identified for the development of a rare earth corridor. • Odisha is being considered for nickel processing due to its nickel reserves and its location in eastern India, which could facilitate the processing of imported nickel from Indonesia and other countries with abundant reserves. Do You Know: • Currently, India has limited processing capacity and is almost completely import-dependent for key critical minerals like cobalt, lithium, nickel, rare earth elements and silicon. On the other hand, China controls 90 per cent of global critical mineral processing. India, therefore, remains vulnerable to supply disruptions. • Currently, India has limited processing capacity for critical minerals and is almost completely import-dependent for some key critical minerals such as cobalt, lithium, nickel, rare earth elements (REEs) and silicon. On the other hand, China controls 90 per cent of global critical mineral processing and often uses it as leverage during trade tensions. India, therefore, remains vulnerable to supply disruptions. The proposed scheme can be seen as part of the government’s broader efforts to address this strategic vulnerability, build domestic processing capabilities, and reduce dependence on China. • India’s National Critical Minerals Mission (NCMM) has proposed to develop a National Critical Mineral Stockpile Programme for stockpiling critical and strategic minerals. For the development of such a reserve, the government has committed the allocation of Rs 500 crore for 2024-25 to 2030-31. Other Important Articles Covering the same topic: 📍 Critical minerals are a strategic asset – India must not fall behind Previous year UPSC Prelims Question Covering similar theme: 1) Consider the following minerals: (UPSC, CSE, 2020) 1. Bentonite 2. Chromite 3. Kyanite 4. Sillimanite In India, which of the above is/are officially designated as major minerals? (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 4 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 2, 3 and 4 only 2) Recently, there has been a concern over the short supply of a group of elements called ‘rare earth metals’. Why? (UPSC, CSE, 2012) 1. China, which is the largest producer of these elements, has imposed some restrictions on their export. 2. Other than China, Australia, Canada and Chile, these elements are not found in any country. 3. Rare earth metals are essential for the manufacture of various kinds of electronic items and there is a growing demand for these elements. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 Previous year UPSC Mains Question Covering similar theme: 📍Discuss the multi-dimensional implications of uneven distribution of mineral oil in the world. (UPSC, GS1, 2021) The Editorial Page Midterms will play a part in the reset of US policy, at home and abroad Syllabus: Preliminary Examination: Current events of national and international importance. Mains Examination: General Studies II: Comparison of the Indian constitutional scheme with that of other countries. What’s the ongoing story : C. Raja Mohan Writes-With Democrats confident of regaining the House of Representatives and hopeful of capturing the Senate in the midterm elections, speculation is growing that the Trump era is drawing to a close. Key Points to Ponder: • What are midterm elections in the United States? • Know the significance of midterm elections in the United States. • How USA’s voting system differs from India’s? • How is the US political system structured? • What is the 2026 midterm arena looking like? • Why does India, and the world at large, care about US midterm elections? • What are the constitutional and political relationship between the executive and legislative branches of the US government? • What is the significance of congressional control over foreign policy funding and authorisations? • Differentiate between the foreign policy powers of the US President and the role of Congress in shaping international agreements. • Explain the significance of H-1B visas in India-US relations. • Why has immigration become a contested issue in American domestic politics? Key Takeaways: C. Raja Mohan Writes— • The emerging political picture in the US is more complex — the election is one important piece of a long-term reorientation of US policies at home and abroad. • A sweeping Democratic victory will demonstrate American democratic resilience and the capacity of its institutions to resist strongman rule. It would restore some of the traditional balance between the executive and legislature and internal distribution of power within his own Republican party. It would also encourage democratic forces everywhere at a time when obituaries are being written for democracy around the world. Do You Know: C. Raja Mohan Writes- • Five broad likely consequences from the midterm elections deserve attention. —First, a weaker Trump at home could become more active abroad. Losing Congress would not deprive him of his executive privilege over the conduct of foreign policy. Politically, presidents frustrated by legislative gridlock have often turned to diplomacy. Trump can pursue international initiatives until his last day in office in January 2029. —Second, Democratic control of Congress would bring investigations into alleged wrongdoing, conflicts of interest and the activities of Trump’s family. These could hurt his standing and consume the administration’s attention without necessarily disabling it. —Third, American arguments about immigration reveal competing currents in American politics. Trump’s emphasis on sovereign borders answered the powerful public sentiment against illegal immigration. But the opposition to the administration’s enforcement methods is real and growing. Similar tensions surround legal immigration, especially the H-1B visas, of particular interest to India. American capital wants access to foreign talent, while opposition to labour imports has grown on both left and right. The next two years are unlikely to resolve these contradictions. —Fourth, the biggest political changes could unfold within the two parties. Socialists and progressives have gained influence within the Democratic Party, challenging its traditional leadership on economic and foreign policy questions. Capturing Congress could intensify rather than settle these internal arguments in the Party. On the Middle East, progressives challenge the party’s traditional support for Israel. —Fifth, the campaign’s focus on affordability and rising living costs brings into view America’s unfinished argument over economic globalisation. Trump promises industrial renewal through import tariffs, ease of living, and higher economic growth. Tariffs can raise costs for consumers and businesses, while the anticipated benefits of industrial reshoring and economic growth take time to materialise. Other Important Articles Covering the same topic: 📍 US midterms: Why voters may punish Trump and Republicans despite booming economy 📍 What are US midterms, why these elections matter to India Previous year UPSC Mains Question Covering similar theme: 📍India and USA are the two large democracies. Examine the basic tenets on which the two political systems are based. (UPSC, GS2, 2018) 📍Examine how the separation of powers is practised in India compared to the rigid presidential model of the United States of America. In this context, compare the actual authority of the Indian Prime Minister with that of the President of the USA. (UPSC, GS2, 2026) Economy India won’t allow genetically modified products: Goyal Syllabus: Preliminary Examination: Current events of national and international importance. Mains Examination: General Studies II: Bilateral, regional and global groupings and agreements involving India and/or affecting India’s interests. What’s the ongoing story : Amid ongoing talks for a trade deal with the US, the Commerce and Industry Minister Piyush Goyal on Tuesday said India will not allow imports of genetically modified (GM) products or dairy products produced using calf meat. He said that if China restricts the exports of tunnel boring machines, the country will produce them domestically. Key Points to Ponder: • What are genetically modified (GM) products? • What is the significance of genetically modified (GM) products in modern agriculture and the concerns associated with their international trade? • Differentiate between genetically modified crops and conventionally bred crops. • Why has the import of GM agricultural products become a sensitive issue in India’s trade negotiations? • Know the significance of India’s restrictions on dairy imports and the certification requirements relating to animal-derived feed and calf-derived rennet. • What is calf-derived rennet? • Why calf-derived rennet use in foreign dairy production become a concern in India’s dairy import policy? Key Takeaways: • This comes as the US has been pushing for exports of GM products under the trade deal with India and has cited Indian regulations blocking imports of certain dairy products as non-tariff barriers. The United States Trade Representative (USTR), in its report on non-tariff barriers released in March 2025, had said that the country imposes “onerous requirements” on dairy imports. • “We are very sensitive to the opening of the dairy sector. Till date we have never opened the dairy sector for anybody. We are sensitive not to allow any GM products to come to India. We have never allowed it, and we will never allow it in the future. We are sensitive to our religious sensitivities. Very often in foreign countries, they use calf meat or rennet while producing their dairy products. We have never allowed it in the past, and we will not do so in the future. It has to be strictly certified,” Goyal said while interacting with students at the Kirori Mal College. Do You Know: • The USTR report had said that the country requires dairy products intended for food to be derived from animals that have not consumed feeds containing internal organs, blood meal, or tissues of ruminant or porcine origin, and that exporting countries certify to these conditions, which lack a discernible animal health or human health justification. Other Important Articles Covering the same topic: 📍 How India — the largest consumer and producer of dairy – is now making its own artisanal cheese Previous year UPSC Prelims Question Covering similar theme: 3) Bollgard I and Bollgard II technologies are mentioned in the context of (UPSC, CSE, 2021) (a) clonal propagation of crop plants (b) developing genetically modified crop plants (c) production of plant growth substances (d) production of biofertilizers Explained Signals from Xi Jinping’s anti-graft military purge Syllabus: Preliminary Examination : Current events of national and international importance. Mains Examination: General Studies II: Effect of policies and politics of developed and developing countries on India’s interests. What’s the ongoing story : At the conclusion of a four-day closed-door meeting of senior Chinese Communist Party (CCP) leaders on Thursday (October 29), it was difficult to miss the main messaging that emerged — “full and rigorous party self-governance”. Key Points to Ponder: • What is the significance of the Fifth Plenum of the 20th Central Committee of the Communist Party of China? • What is meant by the Chinese Communist Party’s policy of ‘full and rigorous Party self-governance’? • Know the organisational structure of the Communist Party of China (CPC). • Why Xi Jinping’s anti-corruption campaign is significant? • What can be the implications of leadership instability within China’s Western Theatre Command for India? Key Takeaways: • Underneath the jargon commonly spotted in official communiques was the goal that CCP general secretary and Chinese President Xi Jinping has pursued over nearly 15 years in power: ridding the Party of corruption. Of late, however, it has taken the shape of major leaders being removed across key bodies, including military ones. • The recent meeting, known as the Fifth Plenum, saw a record number of members expelled. It also saw the elevation of General Zhang Shengmin into the Politburo, which is a 24-member body of top party leaders. • In January this year, General Zhang Youxia, holding the top rank in the People’s Liberation Army (PLA), was purged from the Central Military Commission (CMC) — China’s apex military decision-making body, involved in procurement, testing and other key functions. Nearly all of the CMC’s top leadership have come under corruption investigations in recent years, and only Zhang Shengmin and Xi remain now. • And it’s not just the CMC. Suyash Desai, a Non-Resident Fellow at the Foreign Policy Research Institute in Philadelphia and an analyst of the Chinese military, told The Indian Express that within the PLA, “over 55% of its top leadership (three-star and above) has been purged” to date. The fact that the purge has affected “every section of the PLA” makes it unique in terms of its scale, scope, and nature, he added. Do You Know: • Since Xi assumed power as the general secretary of the CCP in 2012, he has described tackling corruption as a top priority. In fact, his first few years also saw senior military leaders purged, including CMC Vice Chairman Guo Boxiong, who was then the highest-ranking general to ever face a corruption charge. He is currently serving a life sentence. • Initially, some analysts in the West saw the campaign as a means for Xi to remove rivals and consolidate power, but over the years, not even his loyalists and appointees have been spared. The campaign has taken the shape of sudden removals and investigations. • Defence has increasingly come under focus. Key posts are now vacant (see chart) in many top bodies, while others have witnessed a churn. Five of the seven CMC positions remain unfilled, and while the political head of defence has historically been part of the body, current Defence Minister Admiral Dong Jun has yet to be made a member. • In May, former defence ministers Wei Fenghe and Li Shangfu were sentenced to death with a two-year reprieve (meaning the sentence would be converted to life imprisonment after that period) over graft charges. • Desai said that across the five theatre commands, almost all commanders and commissars (who handle major political responsibilities) have been purged on multiple occasions over the past three years. He added that this also includes the Eastern and Western Theatre Commands, which are responsible for Taiwan and India, respectively. • Saxena termed it the “pillar of China’s long-range strategic deterrent and the arm that would open a campaign against Taiwan and threaten US naval vessels”. “After former PLARF Commander Li Yuchao was pulled in 2023 and replaced by Wang Houbin, who was parachuted from the Navy, Wang himself was expelled in October 2025… the PLARF has been decapitated twice in barely two years, and no successor commander has surfaced in public since,” she told The Indian Express. Other Important Articles Covering the same topic: 📍 The Communist Party with Xi Jinping characteristics Previous year UPSC Mains Question Covering similar theme: 📍‘China is using its economic relations and positive trade surplus as tools to develop potential military power status in Asia’. In the light of this statement, discuss its impact on India as her neighbour. (UPSC, GS2, 2017) How New York is regulating the way chatbots interact with children Syllabus: Preliminary Examination: Current events of national and international importance. Mains Examination: General Studies II: Effect of policies and politics of developed and developing countries on India’s interests. What’s the ongoing story : The US state of New York has introduced a law restricting how artificial intelligence (AI) chatbots interact with children. The Senate Bill, signed by Governor Kathy Hochul on October 28, adds Article 48 to the state’s General Business Law. Key Points to Ponder: • Why was the law introduced? • Where the law sits? • What New York’s proposed AI chatbot law prohibits? • Why does the New York law prohibit AI companions from presenting themselves as human or claiming to have emotions and personal relationships with users? • Who is a ‘covered minor’? • How AI companions ability to simulate sustained human-like relationships distinguish them from conventional digital assistants? • What are the concerns surrounding the collection and use of children’s mental and physical well-being information from previous chatbot interactions? Key Takeaways: • It prohibits operators of AI companions from providing certain features to minors, including chatbots presenting themselves as human, claiming personal relationships with users, encouraging self-harm or isolation, and generating sexually explicit content. The legislation is said to take effect from January 2027. • The Act identifies 12 categories of “unsafe AI companion features”. These are design features that generate specified outputs “at any point during” an interaction between a chatbot and a user. The Act defines a “covered AI companion” as a “generative artificial intelligence system with a neutral language interface, including via writing or sound, that provides ongoing, adaptive responses to user inputs”. Operators are persons or businesses that provide a covered AI companion to a user. • Certain provisions concern how a chatbot presents itself. It cannot generate outputs suggesting that it is human, alive or capable of experiencing human emotions. It cannot state or imply a “personal relationship, professional relationship or an authority figure role” with the user. It also cannot deceive minors about its “mechanical and non-sentient nature”. • The Act distinguishes between three categories of users — a minor who is a person under the age of 18 years; a “covered user” who is a person in NYC using a covered AI companion other than an operator or its agent or affiliate; and a “covered minor” who is a covered user whom the operator has “actual knowledge” is a minor. • According to Reuters, Google and AI startup Character.ai settled lawsuits in January this year, including one filed by the mother of a 14-year-old Sewell Setzer who died by suicide in 2024. The family of 16-year-old Adam Raine sued OpenAI in August 2025 following his death. The Common Sense Media chief executive said Raine’s parents met several lawmakers to press for protection of minors from AI chatbots. • Hochul’s office cited Common Sense Media research that 72% of teenagers have used an AI companion and 52% use one regularly. Do You Know: • The legislation adds a new Article 48 to the General Business Law. Article 47 and 45 are of particular importance. • Article 47 is the state’s first AI companion law that covers systems “designed to simulate a sustained human or human-like relationship with a user”. It took effect in November 2025. Such systems are defined partly by their ability of “retaining information on prior interactions or user sessions”, personalised conversations as well as retaining conversations about matters personal to the users. The article defines “human relationships” as “intimate, romantic or platonic interactions or companionship”. • Article 47 requires operators to tell users at the beginning of any interaction and at least every three hours during continuing interactions that they are not communicating with a human. They must also have protocols to detect and respond to signs of suicidal ideation or self-harm. • Article 45 is the Stop Addictive Feeds Exploitation for Kids Act, also known as the SAFE for Kids Act. It requires social media companies to restrict algorithmically personalised feeds and night-time notifications for users under 18 years of age unless they obtain parental consent. The law relies on age assurance, the process of determining a user’s age. Article 48 draws on Article 45’s age assurance framework but also establishes interim requirements for operators until the relevant rules come into force. Other Important Articles Covering the same topic: 📍 What are the guardrails India is putting to safeguard young social media users? Previous year UPSC Prelims Question Covering similar theme: 📍Social media and encrypting messaging services pose a serious security challenge. What measures have been adopted at various levels to address the security implications of social media? Also suggest any other remedies to address the problem (UPSC, GS3, 2024) 📍Child cuddling is now being replaced by mobile phones. Discuss its impact on the socialization of children. (UPSC, GS1, 2023) Flagship fest ahead, why Nagaland wants permit regime scrapped Syllabus: Preliminary Examination: Current events of national and international importance Mains Examination: • General Studies I: Indian culture will cover the salient aspects of Art Forms, literature and Architecture from ancient to modern times • General Studies II: Government policies and interventions for development in various sectors and issues arising out of their design and implementation. What’s the ongoing story: The Nagaland government has urged the Centre to completely withdraw the Protected Area Permit (PAP) scheme from the state ahead of the state’s flagship Hornbill Festival. Key Points to Ponder: • What is the Protected Area Permit (PAP) regime? • Why has the Nagaland government demanded the complete withdrawal of the Protected Area Permit regime? • What is the significance of the Hornbill Festival for Nagaland’s cultural identity, tourism and local economy? • Differentiate between the Protected Area Permit (PAP) and the Inner Line Permit (ILP). • What issues does the Nagaland government have with PAP? • Why is the Hornbill Festival popularly known as the ‘Festival of Festivals’? • How does the Hornbill Festival contribute to the preservation and promotion of the traditional art, music, dance and handicrafts of Nagaland? Key Takeaways: • The festival sees a footfall of over one lakh visitors, including tourists from various countries. This year, it will be held in Kohima between December 1 and 10. The state claims that the regime and accompanying restrictions hinder investment opportunities, economic growth, and tourist flow to the annual cultural event. • Issued by the Government of India, the PAP authorises foreigners to visit states along India’s international borders in areas designated centrally as protected or restricted. • The PAP regime was initially imposed under the Foreigners (Protected Areas) Order, 1958 and spans most northeastern states, including Nagaland. • In a bid to boost tourism, PAP was relaxed for Manipur, Mizoram and Nagaland in 2011. However, it was reimposed in December 2024, citing security reasons. Since then, the Nagaland government has insisted it be completely withdrawn. • Nagaland Chief Minister Neiphiu Rio had written to the Union Home Ministry in September seeking a withdrawal of the PAP. Do You Know: • The Hornbill Festival, organised by the Nagaland government, is the state’s largest public event. Started in 2000 as an annual tradition, it aims to boost tourism by showcasing Naga heritage and culture, and thus act as a unifying force within the state. The festival acts as an umbrella of the major festivals celebrated by the 14 recognised Naga tribes in the state, each replete with its own traditions and practices. Other Important Articles Covering the same topic: 📍 Knowledge nugget of the day: Hornbill Festival Previous year UPSC Prelims Question Covering similar theme: 4) In which of the following regions of India are you most likely to come across the ‘Great Indian Hornbill’ in its natural habitat? (UPSC, CSE, 2016) (a) Sand deserts of northwest India (b) Higher Himalayas of Jammu and Kashmir (c) Salt marshes of western Gujarat (d) Western Ghats PRELIMS ANSWER KEY 1.(d) 2.(c) 3.(b) 4.(d) For any queries and feedback, contact priya.shukla@ indianexpress.com Subscribe to our UPSC newsletter. 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